Some of the provinces were grouped under a governor-general (beglerbeg). The Empire, with extensive agricultural lands in Rumilia (European Turkey), Iraq, Syria and Egypt, was divided into 32 provinces, each with an appointed governor ( pasha or bayg), with a rank commensurate with his position. Muslims, Orthodox Christians, Jews, and Armenians lived peacefully together, each governed by their own religious code. Its capital, Istanbul, was the largest cosmopolitan city in the world with a population approaching a million. Ottoman ships plied the Indian Ocean, and carried goods and guns to places as far away as the Straits of Malacca. European monarchs eagerly sought trade and commerce with the realm of the Sultan. Its embassies were honored in Moghul India and in the Emirates of the Sudan and of East Africa. The world of Islam-with the exception of Safavid Persia-recognized its claim to the Caliphate.

Only Sa’adid Morocco, with its capital at Marrakesh, separated the Ottoman Empire from the Atlantic Ocean and America. The eastern Mediterranean was an Ottoman preserve. From the Suez area, it extended over North Africa through Egypt, Libya, Tunisia and Algeria. In Asia, it included Anatolia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Iraq, the Persian Gulf region, Arabia, Yemen, Syria, Palestine, Israel and Lebanon. In Europe, it extended to the very gates of Vienna, and included Hungary, Romania, Bosnia, Croatia, Serbia, Montenegro, Albania, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Greece, and parts of Poland, Ukraine and Russia. Extending over three continents, it was by far the largest land empire in the world. An observer living in Istanbul in the year 1683 would have been awed by the expanse of the Ottoman Empire. Critical events are like flashes in the panorama of history that show up the stresses built up in societies over a period of time.

Barring natural calamities or invasions, the process takes place over generations. The rise and fall of societies, nations and civilizations does not take place overnight.

Second siege of vienna